Technology Rig Some days you wish had never started, then along comes one you hope will never end. Anything can happen in a day.

Classical economists claimed that free markets regulate themselves, when free of any intervention. Adam Smith referred to a so-called invisible hand, which will move markets towards their natural equilibrium, without requiring any outside intervention assuming Say's Law: supply creates its own demand - that is, aggregate production will generate an income enough to purchase all the output produced; this implicitly assumes, in contrast to Keynes, that there will be net saving or spending of cash or financial instruments.

Keynes argues that it is wrong to assume that competitive markets will, in the long run, deliver full employment or that full employment is the natural, self-righting, equilibrium state of a monetary economy. On the contrary, under-employment and under-investment are likely to be the natural state unless active measures are taken. The central argument of The General Theory is that the level of employment is determined, not by the price of labour as in neoclassical economics, but by the spending of money (aggregate demand). What made the General Theory so radical was Keynes's proof that it was possible for a free market economy to settle into states in which workers and machines remained idle for prolonged periods of time.... The only way to revive business confidence and get the private sector spending again was by cutting taxes and letting business and individuals keep more of their income so they could spend it. Or, better yet, having the government spend more money directly. If the private sector couldn't or wouldn't spend, the government would have to do it. For Keynes, the government had to be prepared to act as the spender of last resort, just as the central bank acted as the lender of last resort. Keynesian economics advocates a mixed economy – predominantly private sector, but with a role for government intervention during recessions

Freidman theorized there existed a "natural" rate of unemployment, and argued that governments could increase employment above this rate (e.g., by increasing aggregate demand) only at the risk of causing inflation to accelerate which is his theory of Monetarism, Friedman argued that laissez-faire government policy is more desirable than government intervention in the economy, Governments should aim for a neutral monetary policy oriented toward long-run economic growth, by gradual expansion of the money supply. He advocated the quantity theory of money, that general prices are determined by money. Therefore active monetary (e.g. easy credit) or fiscal (e.g. tax and spend) policy can have unintended negative effects.

The quantity theory of money is the theory that money supply has a direct, proportional relationship with the price level.

Jehovah's Witnesses are best known for their door-to-door preaching, distributing literature such as The Watchtower and Awake!, and refusing military service and blood transfusions. They consider use of the name Jehovah vital for proper worship. They reject Trinitarianism, inherent immortality of the soul, and hellfire, which they consider to be unscriptural doctrines. They do not observe Christmas, Easter, birthdays, or other holidays and customs they consider to have pagan origins incompatible with Christianity. They consider secular society to be morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan, and limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses.

Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible to be scientifically and historically accurate and reliable and interpret much of it literally, but accept parts of it as symbolic, Witnesses are discouraged from formulating doctrines and "private ideas" reached through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications, and are cautioned against reading other religious literature. Adherents are told to have "complete confidence" in the leadership, avoid skepticism about what is taught in the Watch Tower Society's literature, and "not advocate or insist on personal opinions or harbor private ideas when it comes to Bible understanding." The religion makes no provision for members to criticize or contribute to official teachings and all Witnesses must abide by its doctrines and organizational requirements.

They believe that the holy spirit is God's power or "active force" rather than a person. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created by means of Christ, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son". Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of mankind. They believe Jesus died on a single upright torture stake rather than the traditional cross. They teach taht God's kingdom is a literal government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 Christians drawn from the earth. They believe the kingdom was established in heaven in 1914, and that Jehovah's Witnesses serve as representatives of the kingdom on earth. Jehovah's Witnesses teach that Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven after October 1, 1914, at which point the end times began.

Luther's attack by the elite clergy for his study of Hebrew and Jewish texts, brought him fully in line with the humanist educational reforms who favored academic freedom, Luther borrowed from Humanism the sense of individualism, that each man can be his own priest. Led by Erasmus, the humanists condemned various forms of corruption within the church, Erasmus held that true religion was a matter of inward devotion rather than outward symbols of ceremony and ritual. Favoring moral reforms and de-emphasizing didactic ritual, Erasmus laid the groundwork for Luther. Humanism's intellectual anti-clericalism would profoundly influence Luther. Some philosophers of the Enlightenment, including Voltaire, attacked the Catholic Church, its leadership and priests claiming moral corruption of many of its clergy and pope's control over political matters and also taxes ,In the North, burghers and monarchs were united in their frustration for not paying any taxes to the nation, but collecting taxes from subjects and sending the revenues disproportionately to the Pope in Italy especially considering the recent strings of political humiliation, such as the apprehension of Pope Boniface VIII by Philip IV of France.

Luther appealed to the growing national consciousness of the German states because he denounced the Pope for involvement in politics as well as religion. The disputation protests against clerical abuses, especially the sale of indulgences.this cause provoked Martin Luther to write his Ninety-Five Theses, condemning what he saw as the purchase and sale of salvation. In Thesis 86, which asks: "Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of Saint Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money?"He insisted that, since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.The Ninety-Five Theses not only denounced such transactions as worldly but denied the Pope's right to grant pardons on God's behalf in the first place: the only thing indulgences guaranteed, Luther said, was an increase in profit and greed, because the pardon of the Church was in God's power alone.

Moreover, he backed the nobility, which was now justified to crush the Great Peasant Revolt of 1525 and to confiscate church property by Luther's Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms,Luther's book, On Secular Authority, was an ardent expression of the principle of Liberty of Conscience. "Liberty of conscience" is the principle that forbids human authorities from coercing people's spiritual beliefs. In this book, Luther insisted that God requires voluntary religious beliefs. Compelled or coerced faith is insincere and must never be allowed. Luther insisted that "liberty of conscience" was one of Jesus Christ's principles. According to Luther, the civil government's role is simply to keep outward peace in society. The civil government has no business enforcing spiritual laws. "The laws of worldly government extend no farther than to life and property and what is external upon earth", Luther's articulation of the parameters of civil government was a monumental step in the development of the separation of church and state. He argued for a clear distinction between two separate spheres: civil and spiritual. This is known as the Doctrine of the two kingdoms.

Protestantism is one of the major divisions within Christianity. It has been defined as
1) (Solo Christo) denying the universal authority of the Pope,  the teaching that Christ is the only mediator between God and man, and that there is salvation through no other, This principle rejects "sacerdotalism," which is the belief that there are no sacraments in the church without the services of priests ordained by apostolic succession under the authority of the pope.
2) (Sola fide) affirming the Reformation principles of justification by faith alone without any mixture of or need for good works, it is summarized with the formula "Faith yields justification and good works" and as contrasted with the Roman Catholic formula "Faith and good works yield justification."
3) the priesthood of all believers
4) (Sola scriptura) the primacy of the Bible as the only source of revealed truth, it is perspicuous and self-interpreting.

Evangelicalism is a Protestant Christian movement that began in the 17th century, Calvinists broke with the Roman Catholic church but differed with Lutherans on the real presence of Christ in the Lord's supper, theories of worship, and the use of God's law for believers.

Augustine Influence on Protestant reformers in Free Will

Augustine taught that Adam's guilt as transmitted to his descendants much enfeebles, Total depravity is a theological doctrine derived from the Augustinian concept of original sin. It is the teaching that, as a consequence of the Fall of Man, every person born into the world is enslaved to the service of sin and, apart from the efficacious or prevenient grace of God, is utterly unable to choose to follow God, refrain from evil, or accept the gift of salvation as it is offered., He also argues that those who are saved have been predetermined to be saved by God prior to birth.
Protestant reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin affirmed that Original Sin completely destroyed liberty
The Catholic Church maintains humans retained a free but wounded will after the Fall. Accordingly, the Catholic Church condemned as heresy any doctrine asserting "since Adam's sin, the free will of man is lost and extinguished"

Pope's Supremacy Over Faith

Another disagreement between Catholicism and Protestantism is over the office and authority of the Pope. According to Catholicism the Pope is the “Vicar of Christ” , and takes the place of Jesus as the visible head of the Church. As such, he has the ability to speak ex cathedra (with authority on matters of faith and practice), and when he does so his teachings are considered infallible and binding upon all Christians. On the other hand, Protestants believe that no human being is infallible, and that Christ alone is the Head of the Church. Catholics rely on apostolic succession as a way of trying to establish the Pope’s authority. But Protestants believe that the church’s authority does not come from apostolic succession, but instead is derived from the Word of God. Spiritual power and authority does not rest in the hands of a mere man, but in the very Word of God. While Catholicism teaches that only the Catholic Church can properly and correctly interpret the Bible, Protestants believe that the Bible teaches that God sent the Holy Spirit to indwell all born-again believers, enabling all believers to understand the message of the Bible.

Church's Rule over Civil States

When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Catholic Church as a spiritual City of God (in a book of the same name), distinct from the material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. Augustine's City of God was closely identified with the Church, the community that worshiped the Trinity. Augustine distinguished two kingdoms of men and God, the temporal and spiritual power. The temporal power, because it is based on natural law, which part of inequality physical men, is imperfect. The temporal power must submit to the spiritual power, and just perfect. The State, with Augustine, must be the guarantor of divine order, serve the interests of the Church

The Catholic Church has a similar doctrine called the doctrine of the two swords, in the bull Unam Sanctam, issued by Pope Boniface VIII. In this bull, Boniface teaches that there is only one Kingdom, the Church, and that the Church controls the spiritual sword, while the temporal sword is controlled by the State, although the temporal sword is hierarchically lower than the spiritual sword, allowing for Church influence in politics and society at large.The Bull lays down dogmatic propositions on the unity of the Catholic Church, the necessity of belonging to it for eternal salvation, the position of the pope as supreme head of the Church, and the duty thence arising of submission to the pope in order to belong to the Church and thus to attain salvation. The pope further emphasizes the higher position of the spiritual in comparison with the secular order.

Government may be, and should be, rule by the ideal Christian ruler, whom the Protestants later called “the godly prince”; such a ruler would lead his people in obedience to God.

Evolution is the change in the inherited characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Population genetics is the study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four main evolutionary processes: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene flow. It also takes into account the factors of recombination, population subdivision and population structure. It attempts to explain such phenomena as adaptation and speciation.

There were four major alternatives to natural selection in the late 19th century. Theistic evolution was the belief that God directly guided evolution. The idea that evolution was driven by the inheritance of characteristics acquired during the life of the organism was called neo-Lamarckism. Orthogenesis was the belief that organisms were affected by internal forces or laws of development that drove evolution in particular directions, and saltationism was the idea that evolution was largely the product of large mutations that created new species in a single step.

Natural selection
is a process in which traits vary among individuals, leading to different rates of survival and reproduction, trait differences are heritable.Thus, when members of a population die they are replaced by the progeny of parents that were better adapted to survive and reproduce in the environment in which natural selection took place (Fitness). The concept was simple but powerful: individuals best adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and reproduce. As long as there is some variation between them, there will be an inevitable selection of individuals with the most advantageous variations. If the variations are inherited, then differential reproductive success will lead to a progressive evolution of particular populations of a species, and populations that evolve to be sufficiently different eventually become different species. This process creates and preserves traits that are seemingly fitted for the functional roles they perform. Darwin presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution.
Natural selection is the only known cause of adaptation, but not the only known cause of evolution. Other, nonadaptive causes of evolution include mutation and genetic drift.

When Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution in 1859, one of its major problems was the lack of an underlying mechanism for heredity. Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired traits (pangenesis).

Blending inheritance would lead to uniformity across populations in only a few generations and thus would remove variation from a population on which natural selection could act. This led to Darwin adopting some Lamarckian ideas "use and disuse inheritance" in later editions of On the Origin of Species.Lamarck's theory was that physical changes to an individual to adapt to its environment were passed on to its offspring. The example always quoted in textbooks is that a proto-giraffe who developed a longer neck by constantly stretching it would have offspring with a long neck.The discovery of how DNA works completely refutes this idea. Altering the muscles in your neck does not affect the DNA in your gametes. Before that, though, people could simply observe that the process wasn't happening. Children do not inherit traits that their parents acquired during their lifetimes, only traits that the parents were born with.

This led to the Eclipse of darwinism until genetics was integrated with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics. The work of Ronald Fisher (who developed the required mathematical language and The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection) J.B.S. Haldane (who introduced the concept of the "cost" of natural selection), Sewall Wright (who elucidated the nature of selection and adaptation), Theodosius Dobzhansky (who established the idea that mutation, by creating genetic diversity, supplied the raw material for natural selection: see Genetics and the Origin of Species), William Hamilton (who conceived of kin selection), Ernst Mayr (who recognised the key importance of reproductive isolation for speciation: see Systematics and the Origin of Species) and many others formed the modern evolutionary synthesis. This synthesis cemented natural selection as the foundation of evolutionary theory, where it remains today.

Genetic drift
is a change in allele frequencies caused by random sampling. That is, the alleles in the offspring are a random sample of those in the parents. Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely, and thereby reduce genetic variability. In contrast to natural selection, which makes gene variants more common or less common depending on their reproductive success, the changes due to genetic drift are not driven by environmental or adaptive pressures, and may be beneficial, neutral, or detrimental to reproductive success and chance has a role in determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces.

Mutation
is the ultimate source of genetic variation in the form of new alleles. Mutation can result in several different types of change in DNA sequences; these can either have no effect, alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning.

Gene flow
is the transfer of alleles or genes from one population to another, Maintained gene flow between two populations can also lead to a combination of the two gene pools, reducing the genetic variation between the two groups. It is for this reason that gene flow strongly acts against speciation, by recombining the gene pools of the groups, and thus, repairing the developing differences in genetic variation that would have led to full speciation and creation of daughter species.

Speciation
is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise, Ecologists refer to speciation in terms of ecological niches. A niche must be available in order for a new species to be successful. In ecology, a niche is a term describing the way of life of a species. Each species is thought to have a separate, unique niche. The ecological niche describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources and competitors (e.g., by growing when resources are abundant, and when predators, parasites and pathogens are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (e.g., limiting access to resources by other organisms, acting as a food source for predators and a consumer of prey).

Unit of Selection
is a biological entity within the hierarchy of biological organisation (e.g. self-reproducing molecules, genes, cells, individuals, groups, species) that is subject to natural selection."The generality of the principles of natural selection means that any entities in nature that have variation, reproduction, and heritability may evolve. ...the principles can be applied equally to genes, organisms, populations, species, and at opposite ends of the scale, prebiotic molecules and ecosystems."

Selection at the level of the gene
The contention is that the genes that get passed on are the ones whose consequences serve their own implicit interests (to continue being replicated), Dawkins writes that gene combinations which help an organism to survive and reproduce tend to also improve the gene's own chances of being passed on and, as a result, frequently "successful" genes will also be beneficial to the organism. An example of this might be a gene that protects the organism against a disease, which helps the gene spread and also helps the organism..Proponents of the gene-centered viewpoint argue that it permits understanding of diverse phenomena such as altruism and intragenomic conflict that are otherwise difficult to explain from an organism-focused perspective, where organisms act altruistically, against their individual interests (in the sense of health, safety or personal reproduction) to help related organisms reproduce, can be explained as gene sets "helping" copies of themselves (or sequences with the same phenotypic effect) in other bodies to replicate. Interestingly, the "selfish" actions of genes lead to unselfish actions by organisms.

Selection at the level of individual organism
it can be described as Darwinism, and is well understood and considered common. If a relatively faster gazelle manages to survive and reproduce more, the causation of the higher fitness of this gazelle can be fully accounted for if one looks at how individual gazelles fare under predation.

Selection at the level of the group
If a group of organisms, owing to their interactions or division of labor, provides superior fitness compared to other groups, where the fitness of the group is higher or lower than the mean fitness of the constituent individuals, group selection can be declared to occur.
Specific syndromes of selective factors can create situations in which groups are selected because they display group properties which are selected-for. Many common examples of group traits are reducible to individual traits, however. Selection of these traits is thus more simply explained as selection of individual traits.

a deregulated economy which the government doesn't interfere and leaves the economy to the market, banks used credit system (buy now and the bank pays as a loan for you and you pay later to the bank with benefits) then Investment banks bundled mortgages (house credit loans)  with other loans and debts into collateralized debt obligations (CDOs), which they sold to investors. and promised credit default swap (CDS) is similar to a traditional insurance policy, in as much as it obliges the seller of the CDS to compensate the buyer in the event of loan failure ,(CDS) was akin to an insurance policy. Speculators could buy CDSs to bet against (take a short position in) CDOs they did not own. But people had no money to pay back the loans and due to CDS , the banks had to repay the investors , but the banks had no money (they were given as credit to people) so the economy collapsed (the money cycle stopped) and the government had to buy all the debts for the cycle to return to work